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The Modes of Punishment. A Monologue of a Young Judge.
I am a beginner in the sphere of justice. The most frequent punishment I apply when I have to decide on a convict’s sentence is community service. I think it is the most lenient measure for wrongdoers, but a very useful one for the rest of the community. Since my experience is not very big, I haven’t dealt with atrocious crimes which would deserve capital punishment.
When I studied at Moscow State University my English teacher suggested a very productive idea that a person who has committed a crime should be deprived of those rights, which he or she mostly appreciates. That will be the most effective mode of retribution and deterrence. I am strongly opposed to fines of any kind or scale, as I suppose that money couldn’t make a restitution for moral or physical sufferings. And what’s more, people nowadays are always ready to lose a small sum of money, rather than their freedom or some rights.
I also consider solitary confinement to be an effective measure. When an offender is barred from the rest of the world, deprived of normal social life, when he can’t turn to anybody for help or advise, he has time to think about his life and behaviour. If he is later reformed (according to the assessment of prison board), then he should be sentenced to community service and supervision. But if he can’t understand the cruelty of his behaviour, he faces life imprisonment. I don’t like to use probation and suspended sentences, as there is a fear that an offender may always turn to a slippery slope.
Nevertheless, I usually turn to case study while sentencing this or that person, since I understand the importance of my duty to decide the destinies of people.
Нелли Ганжела, юридический факультет
Is
criminality inborn or acquired?
In
my opinion it is a very complicated problem because criminality is a complex
notion. I think the majority of criminals are shaped by environmental factors.
It does not mean, however, that a person becomes a criminal because of the
influence of poverty. To my mind such environmental factors as the impact of
family, friends, school and social rank of a person do not matter. I know many
cases when a rich man became a criminal. I agree there are some people who have
criminal proclivities but these are rare cases. If children have alcoholic or
drug-abusing parents and they see a lot of violence around — there is a very
big opportunity that they will become criminals.
For example, my parents think that there were much less
criminals in the USSR because there was powerful ideology claiming that everyone
should study, work, have a good family. People were more patriotic, teenagers
had particular aims in life, they wanted to become useful members of society.
Being good was a good taste.
These days, the situation is different and moral values are
‘denominated’. That is why in order to prevent crime each person should take
proper care of his children and his family. If all members of our society do so,
this world will become better.
Аревик Айрапетян, юридический факультет
However hard people try, laws are always insufficient.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle once said “Life and state are far from being perfect.” Why are laws always insufficient? Why can’t we make laws, which will satisfy our demands? It is a very old and interesting question. It is closely connected with the issues of the of the origins of law in general.
Long long ago our ancestors lived according to their customs and conventions, and later according to the law of God. Then, why was there a necessity for inventing some comprehensive law for society, some written law? Today we can investigate the reasons for this phenomenon.
Life is changing constantly. Laws, which were in effect, for example, in Soviet times, can’t be in force these days because life has progressed greatly, our attitudes towards each other have changed and we look at things in a different way.
Of course, one can mention as an instance the USA or some other countries that have once adopted their national constitutions, which are still the supreme law in these countries. And in Russia we have changed 6 constitutional laws for the last 100 years. “Why?” – this question is quite in order. The answer is very simple. Just compare the events of American and Russian history for the last 100 years and you’ll understand the difference. Besides, this is a matter of legal theory as the two countries are guided by different legal principles.
So, as long as life is changing, law will be changing too, and it will always be insufficient. And to my mind it is very good! It’s better to change our life and law for the better, than to stand at one point, however good it may be.
Чиликов Егор, юридический факультет
Judge not, lest ye be judged.
The wisdom of the Bible is often misunderstood, the text is often misread. As many other statements, this one has fallen the victim of human ignorance and shallowness.
What does it mean? ‘Judge not, or God shall Judge you?’ ‘Judge not, or terrible justice shall be unleashed upon you?’ At first, I hesitated to accept one of the points of view that were offered to me. But later, I understood… To make it clear, let me give you an apologue.
Once upon a time, there lived a man of honor and virtue. He was a pious and righteous person, ascetic and devoted to God. But there was one flaw… He used to judge… He judged all humanity most harshly, accusing men of suffocating in their lust to please their bodies, drowning in their sins, forgetting about the salvation of their souls and development of their morale. He judged… He treated them as inferiors, he set himself above them on a pedestal of self-righteous and selfish blindness. He did not think of them as humans. He treated them as animals, or servants of the Devil. He considered himself to be Chosen by God to save this world from corruption and decay of morale…
He became an outcast. No one would speak to him; no one would offer a helping hand to him. Living in seclusion, far from civilization, he saw the light …. God granted him the wisdom and the truth became evident to him. And what he saw was unpleasant: Pointing at others’ weaknesses, he failed to notice his own faults. Self-righteousness, foolish pride, diminishing others’ achievements – that is what he saw. But he continued to judge… Yet, along with the others, he began to judge himself as well…
So the one who judged finally had justice meted upon him. But not from above, he took it from inside his soul…
Миловидов Олег, юридический факультет
However hard people try, laws are always insufficient.
When people first began to live in groups they had few rules or laws, but they soon realized that each individual had to pay attention to the needs and the welfare of his neighbors in order to make life not only tolerable, but pleasant for the greatest number of people. It was considered necessary for each person to recognize everyone else’s rights to life and the ownership of property. Otherwise society could not function in peace. Laws were passed to establish the order in community and they also had to protect the moral values, which were developing among people for many centuries. However in ancient times for example the laws which specified the rights of slaveholder could hardly comply with the slaves’ notions of justice. Another example of unfairness of laws is the condition of Russian peasants during the period of serfdom.
In modern societies law is applied to control the behavior of their members. Law guarantees and protects the rights of all people, who ought to respect and obey the norms, adopted by the legislature.
But as many scientific investigations show, lots of people do not respect
law. They follow its norms just because of the fear of punishment. People pay for the tickets in transport just to avoid being fined. Very often motor-car drivers don’t lose any opportunity to exceed the speed on the road, when it is not allowed, if they are sure, that there is no policeman near. A lot of people don’t have any legal culture. The reason is that we have imperfect laws. This trouble can lead to the increase of offences and crimes.
One more fact which shows the insufficiency of laws is that some rights,
proclaimed in important official documents, are hardly realized in practice. Many young men have lots of trouble when they try to escape the service in the army and want to choose some alternative service.
It is a matter of fact that to provide laws which will help its people to live safely and as comfortably as possible is a Homeric task. But in my opinion a legislature should revise laws, find their defects and try to work out some new perspectives for establishment more perfect and fair laws.
Кулямина Юля, юридический факультет
Laws are not for ordinary people, they are for lawyers
Dear Ladies and Gentlemen,
I consider it a great honour to address you
today. And I want to thank you for the opportunity to speak that you have
bestowed on me.
I would like to start my speech with a story
that a friend of mine told me yesterday.
An indignant lawyer reproaches the
judge: “Last time you charged my client with
a theft committed in broad daylight. This time you are bringing charges
for the artful robbery committed at night. Can you please tell me now, when
exactly my client ought to steal?!!!
The joke suggests that people like this thief
should study laws just to know when they should rob other people and when
they should not.
You know that there wasn’t any law in the primitive
society. And, of course, all of you know, that one of the first written codes
of law appeared in Babylonia. Does anybody here know what laws I am talking
about? Yeah, you are right. It’s the Code of Hammurabi. All of us
have heard a lot about it. But have you ever heard about a jurist or a lawyer
in Babylonia? The answer is “No”. That is why I can assert that law was addressed
to every member of Babylonian community: to the rich and to the poor; to
government officials, priests, and soldiers, merchants, labourers and artisans.
Laws aren’t made only for lawyers. They have
always been meant for all of us. If it were not so, you wouldn’t know
your rights – what you can and what you can t do. You would be absolutely
helpless. And lawyers would be the most powerful and rich people (by the
way, this is not very bad, I think). There would appear a necessity of putting
at least one policeman at every street corner to prevent people from breaking
the law. In fact, every man would become a potential offender.
Let’s make a speculative assumption: A respectable
man in a black suit with a black case comes to you and says that the government
and the state need the house you live in. Then he shows you some papers,
says that according to the law you must leave your house at once. And
then goes to your kitchen and starts having tea while waiting for you
to go away. And you just pack your things, say Goodbye to your house and
leave. Then, standing in the street you begin to realize, that you haven
t got a home any more and you have got no place to live in. And you’ll have
to go your Old Folks, and, perhaps, to live with them for another couple
of years, before you earn enough money to buy yourself a new flat.
But if you were acquainted with the law, at
least with the Constitution (the most important of all our laws), you
would know, that according to the article #35 of the Constitution, if the
state needs your house and wants you to leave it, you ought to do so,
but the state must present you a new house, equal in cost to that of yours.
And if you knew that, you wouldn’t feel desperate and homeless for a single
moment, and, of course, you wouldn’t t have to live with your parents for
another couple of years.
I can give you many more examples, but all
of them prove the same idea. That is why I can surely say, that laws aren’t
made only for lawyers, they are made for ordinary people as well. And
if you want to be a literate person, if you want to know your rights and
duties, if you don t want such nasty things to happen to you, you should
study the Law, at least you should know the Constitution.
Don t let the government fool you, be smart!
Thank you for your attention!
Роман Шарапов, юридический факультет
Laws are not for ordinary people, they are for lawyers
| Judge: You’ve been found guilty of not stopping at the red traffic light when you should’ve done. What do you have to say for yourself? The defendant: Your Honour! I alawys stop at green traffic lights when I don’t have to… |
This joke shows us that people do not always
know their rights and obligations. There are some widely known rules which
are followed by everyone – just for self-protection. For example, what
would people do, unless there are some rules of the road?
But there are other very important rules and
laws, closely connected with our everyday life. Unfortunately almost
none of us knows them well. The knowledge of law is very important in every
society, for every human being. If you know your rights well, you could
demand that others should respect and observe them. In the absence of law
you could only rely upon the law of the jungle.
As for me, I don’t agree with the idea that
laws are not for ordinary people, but for lawyers. I know that there are
some special legal terms, which are unknown to the majority of the people.
But ordinary people should try to improve their general knowledge of law.
They should know their rights listed in the Constitution. It goes without
saying that average citizens don’t have to learn and understand all kinds
of rules and laws. Therefore it is the job of a lawyer to interpret complex
legal theory and precedents and “translate” them into layman’s terms.
That is why lay people have to consult lawyers in order to get legal advice.
I hope that in the future more and more ordinary
people will know their rights better. This is not an easy thing to do,
but I believe that very soon familiarity with law will allow people to
live safely and comfortably and enjoy their legal rights.
Елена Гусакова, юридический факультет
Laws are not for ordinary people, they are for lawyers
To my mind, this point of view is partially
correct. First and foremost, law is considered to regulate the life of
ordinary people. On the other hand, legal experts are employed to help
their clients struggle through the jungle of legal technicalities. Their
efforts are devoted to this primary aim. Still, most lawyers use their brilliant
skills and knowledge not only for the benefit of their clients but for their
own benefit.
Here’s a joke on the subject – just to back
up the theory:
A client comes to take a famous lawyer’s
opinion.
“Could you tell me how much you charge for your legal advice?”
he says.
“Of course”, the lawyer replies, “I charge $200 to answer
three questions!”
“Isn’t it too much?”
“It depends” the lawyer says, “And what’s your third question?”
In any case, though laws are made for ordinary
people, lawyers are the only people capable of making sense of all the
tricky rules and regulations. In modern society lawyers are considered
to be the cornerstone of the sophisticated legal system. That’s one of the
reasons why they demand huge payments for their work.
However it’s obvious that lawyers do the job,
which is essential for the society we live in.
Михаил Мурадов, юридический факультет
LAWS ARE NOT FOR ORDINARY PEOPLE – THEY ARE FOR LAWYERS
Once upon a time, the famous English philosopher
and lawyer Jeremiah Bentham said, “If there weren’t any laws, all the
lawyers would die out from starvation”. This statement surely has a grain
of truth since throughout history laws have often been created in the form
incomprehensible for ordinary people. The first written sets of laws were
very concrete, casual, and dealt with particular cases. For example: “If
a man has bitten off another man’s finger, the bitten man shall bite off
the first man’s finger too”. That’s why those ancient laws were far clearer
for ordinary people than modern ones. But in time, the legal language – legalese
– had changed a lot, and it has become rather difficult for lay people to
understand what all those laws really mean.
Ordinary people have always understood the
simple biblical rules of behavior – thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not
steal, thou shalt not sin, and so on – but sometimes they’re just unable
to make sense of the meaning of the words written in a particular law.
And, therefore, these poor ordinary people need lawyers because only a lawyer
can understand the law created by another lawyer.
The Roman lawyers used to say, “Law is what
we explain”, and they weren’t far from the truth. In the modern society,
lots of laws and law codes are written in such a mysterious language that
it’s absolutely clear – these laws are not for ordinary people. And a
lawyer is to explain, clarify all these frightening legal terms, “translate”
them into our everyday language. That’s also one of the ways a lawyer
earns his money – by giving legal advice to ordinary people, and thus lawyers
are sometimes believed to have made laws more complicated just in order
to make more money.
However, nowadays there seems to be a trend
to make laws more comprehensible, more readable, so that even a housewife
could grasp the meaning of some clauses from the Civil Code. This can
be seen, for example, in some European countries, and it really makes us
believe that laws are going to be made for all people. And we won’t have
to pay for legal aid in order to mitigate the penalty for killing our rowdy
neighbors.
Roland Novozhilov,
There is some eternal law. It is good for all times and places.
I quite agree with the statement given above
but I would like to interpret my idea by contraries and to back my opinion
with the following example:
Let’s imagine a dreadful situation: a builder
accidentally drops a brick which kills the only son of his employer. What
punishment should the negligent builder receive? These days it might be
considered just an accident and the builder will be punished but not very
strictly. And what would happen if the same accident took place long ago,
for example, in ancient Babylon?
Now when we are familiar with the laws of ancient
world we can find them amusing or astonishing but we don’t take them too
seriously. It is not always easy for us to understand the laws laid down centuries
ago. In ancient Babylon law was based on the cruel principle of revenge:
“an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth”. On the one hand it seems logical
if the punishment fits the crime. On the other hand this principle meant
that if the builder (our luckless builder) killed the son of his employer,
his own son had to be killed. Cruel? Unfair? Not for the times of Hammurabi’s
rule! The approach was suitable for that particular society. But is it
acceptable for the contemporary society? Of course NOT! Why? Because our
life has changed greatly, people have changed, everything has changed.
And the law of the talion is not an eternal law. It doesn’t fit the present
situation. The human society is constantly developing and in the course of
this development it requires new laws and regulations which sometimes totally
replace the old ones.
So most laws have changed. Nevertheless there
is some law that we can still call eternal. This law is derived from the
moral values. It is rather a way of thinking, a mentality than a law
per se.
For example, since the times immemorial there
has been the law which prescribes the younger generation to respect their
parents. Throughout the history different legal codes have included specific
articles on the subject. Nowadays we don’t have such articles either in
our Constitution or in other legal documents. But still we do respect our
parents, our elders. Why? Because it’s in the human nature. We are guided
by the moral standards. And if these don’t constitute the eternal law,
could you please tell me what does!!
To sum it up I’d like to say that though our
life has changed a lot since ancient times we still have moral values,
moral laws and most of these laws are good for all times and all places.
Don’t forger it and … obey these laws.
Екатерина Назарова, юридический факультет
Laws Haven’t Changed Since Primeval Times
When human beings first began to live in large
and settled groups they had few rules or laws. Quite soon they realized
that each individual had to pay attention to the needs and welfare of his
neighbours in order to make life not only tolerable but safe for the greatest
number of people. Thus, certain rules of behaviour were set up to enable
people to live in any kind of satisfactory state. These regulations were
ancestral to contemporary laws.
One of the earliest best known legal codes
was that of Hammurabi, the king of Babylon, who lived in about 1800 BC.
Of course it would be difficult to compare his laws to modern ones. Nowadays
many things such as the instruments of punishment or the degree of offender’s
responsibility are different from those of the primeval times. What’s
more, throughout the history the very approaches to the concepts of crime
and criminality have changed.
For example, not so long ago euthanasia (assisted
suicide) was made legal in the Netherlands. Now it is the only country
where “painless killing” of those people who are terminally ill or very
old in order to stop them suffering is no longer a crime.
Undoubtedly legislation is in the process of
permanent change. However, its function remains the same – it is designed
to make people responsible for their deeds.
Дарья Захарова, юридический факультет
Laws Haven’t Changed Since Primeval Times
In the courtroom:
Judge: Now, Mrs. Johnson, how was your first marriage terminated?
Mrs. Johnson: By death.
Judge: And by whose death was it terminated?
Jokes about courts, lawyers and criminals have
always existed in our society. But justice and courts appeared much earlier
than jokes on the subject. Unfortunately our world is far from being perfect
and since the very beginning of human society crimes and criminals have also
existed. Even our remote ancestors had to administer justice. Of course early
laws might be very unrefined and naive but they reflected the human values
which are valued these days too and will be valued until the last man dies.
Thousands of years ago when a man was at a very primitive stage, crimes against
person such as murder and crimes against property, such as theft were not
approved. Punishments at that time were different from those we have nowadays,
but here is an admitted fact: penalties for bad deeds existed in human life
even in those dark ages. And nobody can question the need for them.
Justice is a cornerstone of a civilised society
and one of the greatest inventions of human mind. Without law life is
impossible. I just can’t imagine the situation when a hooligan has stolen
a handbag from a woman and people around greet him in the following way:
“Good boy! Bravo! Well done! How clever of you! We hope it will finish as
good as it has begun!”
Thus laws are an integral part of our life.
Of course a lot of water has gone under the bridge since primeval times
but pure and simple rules of good behaviour will never expire. It has always
been considered bad to kill, steal, inflict bodily harm or cause damage
to property.
Maybe many centuries ago people lived by the
law of the jungle but that was the very beginning of our modern legal
system which is still developing day after day. Which is a good idea, as
progress is always better than stagnation. I hope that at one point laws
will become really perfect and they will be worthy of real civilised society.
Екатерина Родыч, юридический факультет
ЧИТАЙТЕ ЗДЕСЬ!!!
ОДНОАКТНУЮ ПЬЕСУ от Дмитрия Мальцева
… И ПОЧТИ ФИЛОСОФСКИЙ ТРАКТАТ от Антона
Денисова
2001-2002 УЧЕБНЫЙ ГОД:
However hard people try, laws are always insufficient
| Once a captain asked one of his soldiers: – Private Johns, what’s your favourite book? – The thin book, was the answer |
From my point of view this attitude towards
books has some similar features with the attitude of the Russian people
to the law. We want to use as few laws as possible and we obey laws only
if the danger of punishment is obvious. The main reason of such behaviour
is not that we have imperfect laws. Our general trouble is the absence of
the good guidelines for law-making.
From the times of Jaroslav-the-Wise a lot of
lawgivers and authorities have been trying to lay down different laws and
codes. But however hard they tried, in modern Russia the crime rate is extremely
high. I think that one of the reasons of such situation is the absence of
respect to the law, or rather appreciation.
We begin with violating traffic rules, and
later we might commit more serious offences or even crimes.
Last year when some friends of mine and I visited
Finland, a very funny incident occurred. We were in a great hurry and so
we intended to cross the road when the red traffic light was on. There were
no cars on the road and we moved on. Just in the middle of the road I looked
back and saw people staring at us with great astonishment if not with fear.
They had probably never seen anyone crossing the road at the red light. You
see, it’s a high level of “legal culture”. No wonder the level of road accidents
as well as the crime rate is very low there.
To sum up, I’d like to say that only proper
observance of laws would make them work to our credit.
Николай Курмашев, юридический факультет
Laws Haven’t Changed Since Primeval Times
“A creaking door hangs long on its hinges”
– says an old English proverb. From my point of view, we can say quite
the same about laws, because they haven’t сhanged since primeval times.
Even in pre-historic time people in tribes
had different norms and rules of behavior. For example, a member of a
community was punished if he had done harm to another member of the same
community, if he had stolen something or if he had failed to perform his
duties. Nowadays the essence of such regulations of social life is absolutely
the same. Today people are responsible for all their deeds according to
contemporary laws.
This statement is easy to illustrate. In primeval
time if a man murdered another man from his tribe he had to pay а sort
of compensation, for example three sheep. And in modern law code of Chechnya
we can read that if somebody kills another man, he has to pay a compensation
of one hundred cows.
Therefore laws haven’t changed since prehistoric
times and in all ages their function has been to regulate the life of
people in society.
Виктория Модина
Laws Haven’t Changed Since Primeval Times
When the world was at a very primitive stage,
people did not realize the importance and the necessity of law. People
tried to follow some religious norms of behaviour. But soon they realised
that such rules were insufficient because they did not suite all the situations
and were not very fair.
There was a need to invent some new modes of
regulating human relations. Many kings managed to create their own law codes
and thus made it easier for themselves to rule their countries and their
people. But all of them had different points of view on what was right and
what was wrong, so laws were to be changed all the time.
Besides the society itself is developing bringing
the need for new changes in legislation. That is why nowadays it is impossible
to live under some primeval laws. For example, today individuals and whole
industries can be sued and tried in courts for violating the bans on
environment pollution. Certainly the laws, which are applicable to those
cases, are ecological laws and statutes, that did not exist before at
all.
Consequently we can see that laws have changed
since primeval times, though the main idea of justice has remained.
Лера Храмовских, юридический факультет
Laws are not made for ordinary people, they are made for lawyers
I don’t agree with this statement. In my opinion
laws are made for ordinary people as well. And I will try to prove my
point of view.
Here is a joke about lawyers.
– What is the difference between a lawyer and
a vampire?
– A vampire? – A vampire only sucks blood at
night!
This joke reflects the general attitude of
ordinary people towards nasty blood-sucking lawyers. It is absolutely
true, that the work lawyers do is very important and demanding of both
intellect and time. The legal business is really complicated and difficult
to understand. That’s why some people have to consult lawyers now and then
in order to get a piece of advice or just help. But the trouble is that
lawyers usually demand huge payments for their work. People who are well-off
can pay big lawyers’ bills. But there are always poor and very poor people
who cannot afford it. Therefore, the more ordinary people know about their
rights, about law, the better.
Юлия Эктова, юридический факультет, 2001-02
учебный год.
Laws haven’t changed since primeval times.
I don’t agree with this view. To my mind, if we tried to tell somebody that we love them just with the help of body language it would be very funny. And if the decisions in the US Congress had been made through strikes and wars, not through deliberation and agreement, it would have been very stupid too.
For a very long time the human being has been developing. People need to be better and cleverer. I think it is so, because it’s not right to act like animals in the jungle. Yes, some scientists think, that we descend from animals, but we are cleverer and better. At the same time, it is very important, that a lot of people believe in God, they claim that they descend from Adam and Eve, and they need to be better, because of their human nature. With time people have been changing, they have become civilized, so laws have been changing too. Laws have become more important and complete.
Nowadays people can solve their problems with the help of laws, because laws provide for our safe life. That’s why men are more sure of their lives and the lives of their relatives. The jungle world is only for animals these days.
I’m proud of my life in the modern civilized world, where I can feel stronger, because there are laws, which help me in solving different problems. The world is changing, the problems and possibilities are changing, that’ why laws are changing too.
Шевердина Ира, факультет мировой политики МГУ
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Поддержка инструмент перевода: Клингонский (pIqaD), Определить язык, азербайджанский, албанский, амхарский, английский, арабский, армянский, африкаанс, баскский, белорусский, бенгальский, бирманский, болгарский, боснийский, валлийский, венгерский, вьетнамский, гавайский, галисийский, греческий, грузинский, гуджарати, датский, зулу, иврит, игбо, идиш, индонезийский, ирландский, исландский, испанский, итальянский, йоруба, казахский, каннада, каталанский, киргизский, китайский, китайский традиционный, корейский, корсиканский, креольский (Гаити), курманджи, кхмерский, кхоса, лаосский, латинский, латышский, литовский, люксембургский, македонский, малагасийский, малайский, малаялам, мальтийский, маори, маратхи, монгольский, немецкий, непальский, нидерландский, норвежский, ория, панджаби, персидский, польский, португальский, пушту, руанда, румынский, русский, самоанский, себуанский, сербский, сесото, сингальский, синдхи, словацкий, словенский, сомалийский, суахили, суданский, таджикский, тайский, тамильский, татарский, телугу, турецкий, туркменский, узбекский, уйгурский, украинский, урду, филиппинский, финский, французский, фризский, хауса, хинди, хмонг, хорватский, чева, чешский, шведский, шона, шотландский (гэльский), эсперанто, эстонский, яванский, японский, Язык перевода.
- если бы он посмотрел сегодняшние газеты,
- большая небная борозда
- Business economists apply the economic a
- О да.вам очень идет
- В последний раз я смотрела новости три ч
- Брат Мэгги
- Some birds such as parrots will be caugh
- ass poo
- Мальчик Слава из многодетной семьи (6 де
- Cand iubesti puternic, gasesti intotdeau
- Вы такой приветливый
- В пятнадцать часов
- Muted for sticky keys
- Пришли свое фото
- Два красивых и невероятных человека
- Jag måste be dig att sätta dig i en av å
- I must ask you take a seat in one of the
- Мне тоже
- засмущала
- a subject choise form
- Вы такой приветливый
- Привет, одногруппники. Сегодня я хотел б
- поперечный синус перикарда
- Второй подход к решению проблемы перевод
Task 1. Read the text.
Nowadays it is obvious to everyone that, in a community such as the
one in which we live, some kind of law is necessary to try to prevent
people from killing each other. When the world was at a very
primitive stage, there was no such law, and, if a man wished to kill
another man. no one interfered officially.
Later members of every community made laws for themselves in
self-protection. If it were not for the Jaw, you could not go out in
broad daylight without the fear of being kidnapped, robbed or
murdered.
There are more good people in the world than bad, but there are
enough of the bad to make law necessary in the interests of everyone.
There is no difficulty in understanding this but it is important to
understand that law is not necessary just because there are bad
people in the world. If we were all as good as we ought to be, laws
would still be necessary. If we never told lies, never took anything
that didn’t belong to us, never did anything that we ought not to do,
we should still require a set of rules of behaviour, in other words
laws, to be able to live in any kind of satisfactory state.
In the absence of law we could only rely upon the
law of jungle. Every country tries, therefore, to provide laws which
will help its people to live safely and as comfortably as possible.
This is not at all an easy thing to do, and no country has been
successful in producing laws which are entirely satisfactory. But it
is better to have some imperfect laws than to have none at all.
Task 2. Learn the following words and expressions. Make your own
sentences with them.
| 1.nowadays– в настоящее время | 2.obvious– очевидный |
| 3.a | 4.a law– закон |
| 5.necessary– необходимый | 6.to |
| 7.to | 8.self-protection– самозащита |
| 9.to kidnap– похищать | 10. to rob– грабить |
| 11. | 12. to |
| 13. | 14.behaviour– поведение |
| 15.to rely | 16.to |
| 17.in other | 18.safely– |
| 19.imperfect – несовершенный |
3
Task 3. Give
the Russian equivalents to the words below:
It is obvious, in the community we live in, to prevent people; at a
very primitive stage; to make laws; in self-protection; to be
kidnapped or killed; in the interests of everyone; a set of rules; as
comfortably as possible; entirely satisfactory.
Task 4. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following
words:
| В в настоящее | Несоверешнные |
| Это очевидно | Полагаться |
| Препятствовать | Создавать |
| Набор правил | Действовать |
Task 5. Find in the text the conditional sentences.
Task 6. Answer the questions:
1. Why is it necessary to have some kind of law in our community?
2. Why did people make laws?
3. Are there more good or bad people in the world?
4. Is there any country in the world which has perfect laws?
5. What is better: to have imperfect laws or have none at all?
Task 7. Make a list of arguments for and against the following
statements.
1. Laws haven’t changed since primeval times.
2. However hard people try, laws are always insufficient.
3. Laws are not for ordinary people, they are for lawyers.
Task 8. Speak about the need for law.
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Обновлено: 27.04.2023
Chapter 1 “ Law and order”
Task 1. Translate into English:
1. терроризировать окружение – айналасына қысым жасау
2. быть похищенным – ұрлану
3. быть ограбленным – тоналу
4. сборник правил поведения – тәртіп заңы кітапшасы
5. правила дорожного движения – жол жүру ережелері
6. выбить зуб или челюсть – тісін немесе жағын сындыру
7. закон джунглей – джунглий заңы
8. самооборона – өзін – өзі қорғау
Task 2. Translate into Kazakh:
1. Members of every community have made laws for themselves in self- protection.
2. Laws are necessary in the interests of everyone.
3. If we were all as good as we ought to be, laws would still be necessary.
4. We require a set of rules of behaviour, in the other words laws, to enable us to live in any kind of satisfactory state.
5. There must be laws, however good we may be.
6. Law has to provide for all kind of possibilities.
7. In the absence of the law you could only rely upon the law of jungle.
8. Every country tries to provide laws which will help its people to live safety and as comfortable as possible.
9. This is at all an easy thing to make perfect laws.
10. No country has been successful in producing laws which are entirely satisfactory.
11. But we are for better off with the imperfect laws, than if we had none at all.
Task 3. True or false statements. Agree or disagree:
1. In our community we need laws to prevent people from committing crimes.
2. When the world was on the primitive stage there was a system of the laws, rules and regulations to protect the person.
3. Nowadays its your own business to omit the laws or follow them.
4. Laws haven’t changed since primeval times.
5. People make laws for self-protection.
6. It is the right of police to interfere officially, preventing crimes & offends.
7. We need laws in the interests of everyone.
8. If we were all as good as we ought to be we wouldn’t need any laws.
9. In our community we don’t need rules of traffic regulations, trade laws.
10. In the absence of the laws you could only rely upon the law of jungle.
11. Laws must help us to live safely & as comfortable as possible.
12. Laws are not for ordinary people, laws are for lawyers.
Task 1. Correct the statement, each sentence has the mistake:
1. New legislation in the USA usually starts in the House of Lords.
2. Only in the House of Commons a bill is considered in 2 stages.
3. The first reading is purely formal to amend the bill.
4. The third reading is the occasion for debate.
5. The Senate examines the bill in details.
6. A committee can amend the bill.
7. Finally the bill goes to the House of Commons.
8. The Prime Minister has the right of veto.
9. A bill becomes a law after the third reading.
Task 2. Complete the following sentences:
1. New legislation usually … in the House of Lords.
2. The deputy … the bill on the first stage.
3. Members of the Parliament … the bill after the third reading.
4. A committee … the bill after the third reading.
5. Finally the bill … to the reigning monarch for the Royal Assent.
Task 3. Discuss the following questions:
1. What is the difference between a bill & a law?
2. How does the bill go through the Parliament?
3. Who can use the power to veto the bill?
Task 1. Name all types of British courts and give definitions:
A. magistrates’ court
B. Crown Court
C. County court
D. High Court
E. Juvenile court
F. Coroners’ court
G. Administrative tribunal
H. The House of Lords
Task 2. Give a word or expression for the following definitions:
(juvenile; appeal; offender; petition, appeal; magistrate; Justice; Minister of Justice;
legislature; coroner; judiciary)
1. a legal proceeding by which a case is brought to a higher court for review;
2. a court with special jurisdiction over delinquent and dependent young people;
3. a formal written request to a superior court;
4. a person who has committed an illegal action or omission punishable under criminal law;
5. the system of courts;
6. the system of laws;
7. Justice of the peace;
8. investigator of violent, sudden or unnatural deaths;
9. the head of the Ministry of Justice;
10. proper administration of laws.
Task 3.
Fill in the blanks:
a. _____________________ deals with petty crimes;
b. _____________________ deals with serious criminal cases;
c. _____________________ deals with bankruptcy cases;
d. _____________________ deals with offenders under 17;
e. _____________________ deals with violent deaths;
f. _____________________ deals with disputes between individuals and government departments;
g. _____________________ deals with appeals from British courts.
( Magistrates’ Court; Coroners’ Court; County Court; Crown Court; Administrative tribunal; Juvenile Court; The House of Lords)
Chapter 1 “ Law and order”
Unit 1 “ The need for law”
Task 1. Read the text “ The need for law”
Task 2. Check in your vocabulary the meaning of the following words:
1. to commit a crime совершить преступление – қылмыс істеу, жасау
2. to murder совершить убийство, заранее
обдуманное злым умыслом-алдын ала қаса қою
3. manslaughter (unplanned, юр. непредумышленное убийство – ойланбай unexpected) істелінген адам өлтіру
4. to bury хоронить, прятать – жерлеу, тығу
5. community общество, сообщество – қоғам, қоғамдық
6. crime уголовное преступление, криминал – қылмыстық іс, криминал
7. offend проступок – құқық бұзушылық
8. primitive stage примитивная стадия развития,
первобытный строй – ең қарапайым өсу,алғашқы қауымдық құрылыс
9. smb’s own business чьё-либо личное дело – әлде – кімніңжеке ісі
10. to interfere officially вмешиваться официально – лауазымды ауласыу
11. to make laws издавать законы – заң шығару
12. self-protection самозащита – өзін – өзі қорғау
13. neighbourhood окружение, соседство- жаң-жақты көршілік
14. to be kidnapped быть похищенным – ұрлану
15. to be robbed быть ограбленным – тоналу
16. to omit doing smth пренебрегать чем-либо – бір нәрсені немесе біреуді ескермейу
17. a set of rules of behaviour сборник правил поведения – мінез-құлқы кітапшасы
18. to enable давать право или возможность – құқық беру
19. to hover держать по близости на дороге –жолдың жанында тұруға құқық беру
20. to collide сталкиваться – жағдайға (тірену)
21. mould плесень – сүңгі, (көк дақ)
22. mouldy заплесневелый, покрытый плесенью – сүңгілі, сүңгі жамылған
24. to hit smb on the nose or head ударить кого-нибудь в нос или по
голове – әлде біреудің басы мен мұрнын ұру
25. to break smb’s jaw сломать челюсть – жағын сындыру
26. decent приличный, порядочный, хороший – әдепті, салиқалы, жақсы
27. to flash вспыхнуть – жалындау
28. to remain on the premises быть на высоте, быть хозяином
положения – жоғарыда тұру, өз ісінің иесі
29. rule правило, норма, право – ереже, құқық
30. rules of the road(pavement) ПДД – жол жүру ережелері ЖЖЕ
31. regulation постановление, положение – ұйғарым, бұйрық
32. law закон – заң
33. lawyer юрист – заңгер
34. perfect laws безупречные, совершенные законы – мінсіз, нақтылы заңдар
35. imperfect laws неполные, несовершенные законы – толық емес, аяқталмаған заңдар
36. to follow the laws соблюдать законы – заңды сақтау
37. to break the laws нарушать законы – заңды бұзу
38. to rely upon полагаться на – біреуге (бірденеге)сену,
39. at any rate во всяком случае – бәрі-бір
Task 3. Find the synonyms in the second column:
1. laws that don’t work community
2. laws that work offend
3. to kill imperfect laws
4. society pal, gay
5. to prevent smb from perfect laws
killing
6. crime to murder
7. to be the master of to be enable
the situation
8. to be given the right to remain on the premises
9. chum to prevent from committing a crime
Task 4.Find the antonyms:
1. perfect laws decent potatoes
2. to follow the laws imperfect laws
3. mouldy potatoes to break the laws
4. to omit the laws perfect laws
5. laws that work to follow the laws
Chapter 1 “ Law and order”.
“An outline of lawmaking process in Great Britain & the USA”.
Task 1. Read the texts “Britain” & “ United States”
Task 2. Do some exercises to revise all new words from the texts.
Match a word in the column A with its translation in column B:
A B
new legislation господствующий монарх –билеуші монарх
to be considered in 3 stages новое законодательство – жаңа заңдылық
to introduce the bill возвращаться в одну из палат- кез келген палатаға
the occasion for debate рассматриваться в 3 стадиях – 3 кезеңнен қаралады
to examine in details делать поправки в законопроект- заң жобасына өзгерістер еңгізу
to be returned to one of the house использовать власть – билікті қолдану
to amend повод для обсуждения – талқылауға себеп
to agree отказывать в согласии – келісім бермеу
persistent disagreement иметь право налагать вето – тыйым салуға құқық
the reigning monarch вносить на обсуждение законопроект-заң жобасын талқыға салу
the royal assent соглашаться – келісу (келісім беру)
to refuse the consent королевская санкция-Патшалығының ұйғары
to use the power исследовать в деталях – тәжірибелерді жүиелі түрде қарастыру
to have the right of veto настойчивое несогласие – бір бетпейлік
Task 3. Present Simple Passive is mainly used in the texts. Give the examples from the texts & translate them into Russian.
Task 4. Complete the sentences. One starts the sentence from the text & the other repeats it & finishes.
For example:
A: New legislation in Great Britain usually starts…
B: … in the House of Lords.
Task 5. Answer the questions:
1. In which House does new legislation in Great Britain usually start?
2. Which of two Houses of Parliament has more power?
3. How many readings should a bill go through to become a law?
4. Where & when does the Parliament make the amendments of the bill?
5. What is the first ( second & third ) readings?
6. Who has the right of veto?
7. Where does the bill go finally?
Chapter 1 “Law and order”.
“ The Court system of England & Wales”
Task 1. Read the text, p.11
Task 2. Check the meanings of new words & expressions in your vocabulary:
1. common law общее право – жалпы құқық
2. magistrates’ courts суд магистратов-магистраттардың соты
3. magistrate магистрат, мировой судья-магистрат, әлемдік судья
4. criminal case уголовное дело, криминальное дело-кылмыстық іс, криминалтдық іс
5. Crown Court Суд Короны – Корона соты
6. civil case гражданское дело – азаматтық іс
7. divorce развод-айырылысу
8. bankruptcy банкротство, неплатежеспособность- банкроттық, төлейалмаушылық
9. appeal апелляция – аппеляция (қайта қаралу)
10. appeals on points of law апелляции по статьям-бап бойынша аппеляция
11. higher court вышестоящий суд-жоғарыда тұрған сот
12. the highest court суд последней инстанции-ақырғы сот
инстанциясы
13. High Court Высокий Суд – Жоғарғы Сот
14. to refer to отсылать, отправлять – жіберу,
15. the European Court of Human Rights Европейский суд по правам человека-
Еуропалық адам құқығы соты
16.offender Правонарушитель – құқық бұзушы
17.coroners’s court суд коронеров – коронер соты
18.investigate расследовать – қарастыру
19.violent насильственный-(күштеу), зорлық көрсету
20.sudden внезапный- кенеттен
21.unnatural неестественный-табиғи емес
22.administrative tribunal административный трибунал-әкімшілік
трибуналы
23.taxation налогообложение- салық салу
Task 3. Name all types of British courts and give definitions:
A. magistrates’ court
B. Crown Court
C. County court
D. High Court
E. Juvenile court
F. Coroners’ court
G. Administrative tribunal
H. The House of Lords
Task 4. Give a word or expression for the following definitions:
(juvenile; appeal; offender; petition, appeal; magistrate; Justice; Minister of Justice;
legislature; coroner; judiciary)
1. a legal proceeding by which a case is brought to a higher court for review;
2. a court with special jurisdiction over delinquent and dependent young people;
3. a formal written request to a superior court;
4. a person who has committed an illegal action or omission punishable under criminal law;
5. the system of courts;
6. the system of laws;
7. Justice of the peace;
8. investigator of violent, sudden or unnatural deaths;
9. the head of the Ministry of Justice;
10. proper administration of laws.
Task 5.
Fill in the blanks:
a. _____________________ deals with petty crimes;
b. _____________________ deals with serious criminal cases;
c. _____________________ deals with bankruptcy cases;
d. _____________________ deals with offenders under 17;
e. _____________________ deals with violent deaths;
f. _____________________ deals with disputes between individuals and government departments;
g. _____________________ deals with appeals from British courts.
( Magistrates’ Court; Coroners’ Court; County Court; Crown Court; Administrative tribunal; Juvenile Court; The House of Lords)
Task 3. Answer the questions:
1. How did the number of lawyers in the US change in the comparison with their figures 25 years ago?
2. What conclusion does the author make on the basis of this change?
3. Would the figure be lower or higher than the average salary of physicians if we could include in the average salary of 88 000$ the average salary of all lawyers whatever their experience?
4. Are the salaries of many professionals greater or smaller than those lawyers?
5.What are the salaries of the newly minted lawyers?
6.For what did any firms offer additional bonuses?
7.What is the other side of the glamour of the legal practice?
8.What are the other reasons besides market forces, account for allure of the legal professions?
9.In what way does the system of checks & balances influence on the parties?
10.Why does the pluralistic democracy influence on the important role of the courts?
Task 4. Paraphrase, matching the words:
To outpace to explain
To account newly created lawyers
To create demand to manage
Newly minted lawyers to overtake
To strengthen to require
To head to oppose
To attract to draw
To defer to propose, to put the question to…
To press interests on to force
To challenge the government to defend
Task 5. Answer problem questions:
1. Why can advertising create demand for legal services in the federal society?
2. Why does the principle of separation of the powers make governing impossible?
3. Why are the political institutions forced to compromise?
4. Why does the pluralistic democracy operate pressing its interests?
Task 6. Read the text: “US Attorneys”
Task 7. Write the sentences with these verbs:
To cover, to notch, to appoint, to prosecute, to harbour, to command, to generate, to appear, to launch.
Task 8.Paraphrase the following & learn by heart:
1.Faithful executions of the laws – painstaking execution = conscientious = very careful;
2.To be under smb’ s authority – to be under supervision of smb = care = permission;
3. To be in charge of – to be in control or command of smb;
4.consent – agreement
5.appointee – a person chosen for a vacant place, position;
6.to relinquish – to resign, to give up;
7.amount of litigation – amount of claims ( points of accusal )
8.to prosecute – to sue smb;
9.elecred office – the best office;
10.inside traders – traders of the stock of exchange;
11.press coverage – lightening in press;
12.to harbour – to conceal;
13.to launch a career – to start a career.
Task 9. Translate into Russian:
II. Найдите в тексте А предложения, отвечающие на следующие вопросы:
1. Кому принадлежит высказывание “Закон – это порядок, а разумное законодательство есть основа порядка” ? Aristotle said that “Law is order and good law is good order”.
2.Зачем людям правила? For human beings to live together in a society they need to have rules to govern how they’re going to live.
3.Какие бывают правила и правовые нормы? live. Rules can be of many different types. We have informal social rules, we have rules of behavior, we have rules of dress, and we have rules of conversation. In a democratic society, we speak about the rules that govern how we live and how we do business and the rules supported by the coercive power of the state.
4. Что такое право? Law is a system of rules that people are supposed to follow in a society or country. Law is a limit on different forms of behaviour.
5. Как регулируют люди свои взаимоотношения в обществе? In all societies people regulate their relations by laws.
6. Что такое обычай? Some of them are customs that is informal rules of social and moral behavior.
7. Для чего правительство создает законы и следит за их соблюдением? Without law there is anarchy in society.
8. Могут ли люди урегулировать свои разногласия неофициальным путем? Sometimes people can settle disputes using informal ways.
9. Что мы делаем, если нам нужно решить какой-либо сложный юридический вопрос? But if we do something complex such as buy or sell a house, decide whom to give our property, we seek legal advice.
10. Используем ли мы закон, чтобы вершить правосудие? We also use law to do justice.
11. Для чего существует большинство законов? Most of laws exist to make life easier, safer and happier.
III. Заполните пропуски, используя следующие слова и выражения:
legal advice, customs, law, just, enforce, to settle
1. Law is necessary in every society.
2. Сustoms are informal rules of social and moral behaviour.
3. A just decision is a fair decision.
4. Sometimes we go to the police to settle our problems.
5. If we want to sell or buy a house we seek legal advice.
6. Governments enforce law with the purpose of social control.
IV. Переведите следующие словосочетания с русского языка на английский:
The purpose of the law, a human being, a society, rules of conversation, the coercive power, different forms of the behavior; the limitation of the behavior; regulate the relations; informal rules of the behavior; to make a law; to follow the rules, to settle disputes, an informal way, to give the property, to do justice, to make life easier, safer and happier.
V. Составьте предложения, используя следующие слова:
1. Behaviour, limit, is, different, a, forms, law, on, of.
2. Social, purpose, makes, government, and, enforces, control, social, law, with, the, of.
3. Most of laws exist to make life easier, happier and safer.
VI. Найдите в тексте А и переведите на русский язык глаголы в форме 3 л. ед. ч. в Present Simple.
Underlines – подчеркивать
Plays – играть
VII. Заполните пропуски, используя глаголы, данные в скобках:
1. Social control is important.
2. Law creates a just society.
3. Laws become a part of daily life.
4. With the help of laws people settle disagreements between them.
5. In different countries laws are different.
VIII. Ответьте на вопросы упражнения II.
IX. Подготовьте пересказ текста А на английском языке.
X. Прочитайте и переведите текст В.
Text В
THE FIRST LAWS
Laws are part of human life. The oldest legal text belongs to Ur-Nammu, a king of the Mesopotamian city of Ur, 2100 B.C. It says about compensation for bodily injuries, penalties for witchcraft and punishment of runaway slaves. The oldest law code belongs to Hammurabi, a king of Babylonia, 1758 B.C. It is written on a great stone in a temple to the Babylonian god Marduk. This stone is now in the Louvre museum in Paris. The laws in this code say about crime, divorce and marriage, the rights of slave owners and slaves, debts, inheritance and property contracts. The code gives cruel punishment for crimes. Murderers and thieves get death penalty. Hammurabi’s laws are progressive because according to them the penalty can’t be harder than the crime.
Законы являются частью человеческой жизни. Старейший юридический текст принадлежит Ур -Намму, царю Месопотамского города УР, 2100 года до рождества Христова. Он говорит о компенсации за телесные повреждения, наказание за колдовство и наказания беглых рабов. Древнейший свод законов принадлежит Хаммурапи, царю Вавилонии, 1758 году до нашей эры. Они написаны на большом камне в храме Вавилонского Бога Мардука. Этот камень сейчас находится в Лувре в Париже. Законы в этом коде говорят о преступности, разводе и браке, правах рабовладельцев и рабов, долги, наследство и имущественных договоров. Код дает жестокие наказания за преступления. Убийцы и воры получают смертную казнь. Законы Хаммурапи являются прогрессивными, потому что по их мнению наказание не может быть тяжелее, чем преступление.
X. Переведите следующие словосочетания с русского языка на английский:
legal; compensation for bodily injuries punishment; runaway slaves; to belong, stone, a temple, divorce and marriage; slave owners; debts; inheritance and property contracts; cruel punishment; murderers and thieves; death penalty; according to, harder than the crime… .
XII. Найдите в тексте В предложения, отвечающие на следующие вопросы:
1. Как называется самый ранний из известных юридических текстов? The oldest legal text belongs to Ur-Nammu, a king of the Mesopotamian city of Ur, 2100 B.C.
2. Что представляет собой кодекс Хаммурапи? It says about compensation for bodily injuries, penalties for witchcraft and punishment of runaway slaves.
XIII. Подготовьте пересказ текста В на английском языке.
Discussion:
Laws haven’t changed since primeval times. Законы не изменились с первобытных времен.
Why do you think, no matter how hard people try, laws are always insufficient. Почему вы думаете, что, как бы ни старались люди, законы всегда недостаточно эффективны.
How do you think the first laws can appear? The oldest law code belongs to Hammurabi, a king of Babylonia, 1758 B.C.
Can you imagine the process of lawmaking? Yes, I can.
What is the difference between a law and a rule? Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior. Rule: a principle or condition that customarily governs behavior; “it was his rule to take a walk before breakfast”; “short haircuts were the regulation” 2: something regarded as a normative example; “the convention of not naming the main character”;
XIV. Прочитайте и перескажите английские шутки:
Murder is always a mistake… One should never do anything that one cannot talk about after dinner.
Oscar Wilde
Убийство-это всегда ошибка… никогда не следует делать ничего, что нельзя говорить после обеда.Оскар Уайльд
* * *
Верь или не верь…
… в Техасе, в США, незаконно клясться возле покойника.
…в городе Нью-Арк, Нью-Джерси, США, незаконно, покупать мороженое после 6 . без письменного разрешения вашего врача.
… есть закон в штате Мичиган, США, в котором говорится, что муж является собственником волос своей жены.
… последняя воля и завещание великого французского писателя Франсуа Рабле (ок. 1490-1553) гласит: “я ничего не имею. У меня есть многое. Остальное я оставлю для нищих.”
Legal Systems
The contemporary legal systems of the world are generally based on one of three
basic systems: civil law,common law, and religious law – or combinations of these.
However, the legal system of each country is shaped by its unique history and so
incorporates individual variations.
Civil law is the most widespread system of law around the world. It is also sometimes
known as Continental European law. Countries of Europe, Latin America, Asia and
Africa use it. Governments of the Countries using Continental Law make a set of codes.
Judges use this set of codes to judge people. They must think well before making a
decision. States make laws not courts. So, laws must be clear. The model of such law is
Roman law.
Common law and equity are systems of law whose sources are the decisions in cases
by judges. Every system will have a legislature that passes new laws and statutes.
Common law is currently in practice in Ireland, most of the United Kingdom (England
and Wales and Northern Ireland), Australia, New Zealand, Bangladesh, India (excluding
Goa, Pakistan, South Africa, Canada (excluding Quebec), Hong Kong, the United
States (excluding Louisiana) and many other places.
The English legal system
The United Kingdom is made up of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. But
when we talk about the English legal system, we are talking about the laws of England
and Wales because Scotland and Northern Ireland have different legal systems. In fact,
Scotland has laws that are completely unknown in England and Wales.
There are basically four sources of English law, and the English Parliament is number
one.
Number two is the UK Supreme Court and the Royal Courts of Justice.
Three, the European Union, and four, the European Court of Human Rights.
So law comes from Parliament, that’s legislation, statute, acts of Parliament, written
laws. It comes from the common law decisions of judges sitting in courts – the Supreme
Court. Royal Court of Appeal, High Court and so on. But also, it comes from Europe,
from the European Commission and European Council of Ministers, as well as the
European Court of Human Rights.
The most voluminous source of law in the English legal system and probably for that
reason the most important source of law is the common law. Customs and law
decisions are important in Common Law. Common law is case law. In some cases
judges not only apply the law they make law. Their interpretations become precedents
for other courts to follow.
II. Найдите в тексте А предложения, отвечающие на следующие вопросы:
1. Имеет ли каждая страна свою собственную правовую систему?
2. Сколько существует основных правовых традиций?
3. Какие страны используют общее право Англии?
4. Какие страны используют континентально-европейское (или римское) право?
5. Что является важным в общем праве Англии?
6. Является ли общее право прецедентным правом?
7. В традиции общего права Англии судьи только применяют существующие
законы при вынесении приговора или же одновременно создают законы?
8. Является ли интерпретация судей прецедентом для использования в
дальнейшем другими судами?
9. Какую законодательную базу создают правительства стран, использующих
континентально-европейское право?
10. Кто в случае использования континентально-европейского права создает
закон: государство или суды?
11. Какими должны быть законы?
12. Что касается английской правовой системы, речь идет о правовой системе
Англии и Уэльса, Северной Ирландии и Шотландии или Северная Ирландия и
Шотландия имеют самостоятельные отличающиеся правовые системы?
13. Какие четыре источника английского права существуют?
III. Заполните пропуски, используя следующие слова и выражения:
customs, Continental or Roman, apply the law, main traditions, Common law, set, law
decisions
1. There are two … of law .
2. One is English ….
3. The second is … law.
4. … and … are important in common law.
5. Judges not only … they make law.
6. Governments make a … of codes.
IV. Переведите следующие словосочетания с русского языка на английский:
обычаи и судебные решения; в некоторых судебных делах; судьи применяют
закон; судьи создают закон; интерпретации становятся прецедентами; другие
следуют интерпретации; создают свод законов; судить людей; использовать свод
законов; хорошо подумать; законы должны быть ясными.
V. Соедините левую и правую колонки:
1) to judge а) становиться прецедентом для
2) to make a decision b) прецедентное право
3) to be different с) принять
· Why do you think, no matter how hard people try, laws are always insufficient.
Опрос по активной лексике урока (Unit 1 Just English)..
Работа над лексикой урока(Unit 1 Just English). . Task 2, 4.
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Выучить лексический и грамматический материал, представленный на занятии.
2. Выполнить грамматические упражнения письменно.
3. Составить диалог-обсуждение изученного на занятии текста.
Форма контроля:
· Письменная проверочная работа по лексике и грамматике урока
· Оценка навыков монологической и диалогической речи в процессе обсуждения указанной темы
· Проверка выполнения письменного задания
Практическое занятие 21*
Тема : The need for law.
· What do you remember about Middle ages?
· What characterizes this historic period?
· What laws do you think worked at that time?
Quiz по активной лексике.
Работа над лексикой урока (Unit 1 Just English). . Task 3.
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Повторить изученный лексический и грамматический материал.
2. Составить ответ на коммерческое предложение с использованием изученного и дополнительного материала.
Форма контроля:
· Проверка выполнения письменной контрольной работы
· Оценка диалогической речи в процессе ролевой игры по изученной теме
Практическое занятие 22
Тема: The first Laws: Laws of Babylon.
1 How do you think the first laws can appear?
2 Can you imagine the process of law making?
3 What is the difference between a law and a rule?
Текст The Birth of Law.
Формирование активного словаря урока (Unit 2 Just English).Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Выучить лексический и грамматический материал, представленный на занятии.
2. Выполнить грамматические упражнения и работу над ошибками письменно.
Форма контроля:
· Оценка навыков монологической и диалогической речи в процессе работы по вышеуказанной теме.
· индивидуальный и фронтальный опрос
· проверка письменных заданий
Практическое занятие 23
Тема : The first Laws: Laws of Babylon.
1 Why is it difficult to judge about the earliest laws?
2 Where and why did the first laws appear?
3 What issues did the early laws emphasise? Why?
Работа над активной лексикой урока (Unit 2 Just English).. Task 1.
Перевести, используя словари, следующее предложение:
I hereby give, grant and convey to you all my interest, right, title and claim of and in this orange, together with all its rind, skin, juice and pulp, and all right and advantage therein with full power to bite, cut, suck, or otherwise eat or consume the said orange, or give away or dispose of to any third party the said orange, with or without its rind, skin, juice and pulp, subject to any amendments subsequently introduced or drawn up to this agreement.
Прокомментируйте аналогично следующие предложения:
1 I give you this book.
2 I give you this apple.
3 I give you this car.
4 I give you this doll.
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Выучить лексический и грамматический материал, представленный на занятии.
2. Выполнить грамматические упражнения письменно.
Форма контроля:
· Оценка навыков монологической и диалогической речи в процессе дискуссии по вышеуказанной теме.
· индивидуальный и фронтальный опрос
Практическое занятие 24
Тема: The first Laws: Laws of Babylon.
· What do you know about Babylon?
· What is the most famous legend about this city?
Текст Law of Babylon.
Формирование активного словаря урок (Unit 2 Just English).а :
Работа над предлогами и артиклями.
Бонк: ex.7, 8 p. 88; ex.6 p. 98
Глаголы to go, to come, to get. Ex. 8 p.99
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Повторить изученный лексико-грамматический материал.
2. Выполнить грамматические упражнения письменно.
Форма контроля:
· Оценка навыков монологической и диалогической речи в процессе работы по вышеуказанной теме.
· индивидуальный и фронтальный опрос
Практическое занятие 25
Тема: The first Laws: Laws of Babylon.
· What was the text Law and Society about?
· Why do people need laws?
Опрос по активной лексики урока (Unit 2 Just English). .
Работа над лексикой урока (Unit 2 Just English). Task 5, 7.
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Выучить лексический и грамматический материал, представленный на занятии.
2. Выполнить грамматические упражнения письменно.
3. Составить диалог-обсуждение текста урока.
Форма контроля:
· Оценка навыков монологической и диалогической речи в процессе чтения, обсуждения текста
· Контроль навыков восприятия аудио-визуального ряда на иностранном языке.
Практическое занятие 26*
Тема: The first Laws: Laws of Babylon.
What do you know about the history of England?
Who were Normans? Why did they come?
How did the native population accept them?
Was that invasion progressive?
What happened with the language?
Who were Anglo-Saxon? Did they have rights?
3. Прослушивание и обсуждение диалогов по теме.
4. Отработка навыков правильной артикуляции, интонации, чтения.
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Выучить лексический и грамматический материал, представленный на занятии.
2. Выполнить грамматические упражнения письменно.
3. Составить диалог-обсуждение изученного на занятии текста.
Форма контроля:
· Письменная проверочная работа по лексике и грамматике урока
· Оценка навыков монологической и диалогической речи в процессе обсуждения указанной темы
· Проверка выполнения письменного задания
Практическое занятие 27
Тема : The First Laws: Ancient Greece and Rome.
· What do you know about Greece and Rome?
· What legislation and legal systems did they have?
· What famous statesman and politicians of Greece and Rome do you know?
Текст: The legal Heritage of Greece and Rome.
Формирование активного словаря урока (Unit 3 Just English):
· What are the origin and the meaning of the word “draconian”?
· What was Solon’s contribution to ancient law?
· How do you understand the concept of “natural law”?
Опрос по лексики.
Работа над лексикой. Task 2.
What does the ancient Greek concept of law comprise?
Why were the first laws mainly attributed to divine powers?
Работа над артиклями и предлогами.
Бонк: ex.6, 8 p.106; ex.8, 9 p.117.
Оборот to be going to.
ex.10, 11, 12 p. 97
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Выучить лексический и грамматический материал, представленный на занятии.
2. Выполнить грамматические упражнения письменно.
Форма контроля:
· Фронтальный и индивидуальный опрос
· Оценка навыков монологической и диалогической речи в ходе дискуссии по теме
· Проверка выполнения письменного задания
Практическое занятие 28
Тема:Тема : The First Laws: Ancient Greece and Rome.
· What do you know about Seven Wise Men of Greece?
· Name them, tell what are they famous of?
Формирование активного словаря урока (Unit 3 Just English). .
· What do you remember about Laws of Babylon?
· Who drew them up?
· What questions did they cover?
· What punishment did they envisage?
· Compare them with the laws of Draco and then of Salon.
Опрос по активной лексике урока (Unit 3 Just English). .
1 What was Salon’s contribution to world sciences?
2 How was put together the accounts of his life?
3 When did Salon first become prominent?
4 When did he live? What were the times then for Athens?
5 What were two main things he believed in?
6 Why was Draco’s code severe?
7 What was the single statute Solon didn’t change?
Работа над предлогами и артиклями.
Бонк: ex. 7, 8 p. 127.
Работа над глаголами to make, to do, to tell, to speak.
Перевод на времена групп Indefinite, Present, Past Continuous.
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов: подготовка к контрольной работе№5
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Выучить лексический и грамматический материал, представленный на занятии.
2. Выполнить грамматические упражнения письменно.
3. Составить диалог-обсуждение текста урока.
Форма контроля:
· Оценка навыков монологической и диалогической речи в процессе чтения, обсуждения текста
· Контроль навыков восприятия аудио-визуального ряда на иностранном языке.
Практическое занятие 29*
Тема: The foundation of British Law: The Magna Carta.
· What do you know about political system of Great Britain?
· Do you think that Roman law had an effect on the development of British law?
Текст The Magna Carta.
Формирование активного словаря урока . (Unit 4 Just English).
Отличие Present Perfect от Past Simple.
Упражнения, грамматический перевод.
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Выучить лексический и грамматический материал, представленный на занятии.
2. Выполнить грамматические упражнения письменно.
3. Составить диалог-обсуждение изученного на занятии текста.
Форма контроля:
· Письменная проверочная работа по лексике и грамматике урока
· Оценка навыков монологической и диалогической речи в процессе обсуждения указанной темы
· Проверка выполнения письменного задания
Практическое занятие 30
Тема: The foundation of British Law: The Magna Carta.
· What were the two basis principles of the English system of government at the beginning of the 13 th century? How do you understand these principles?
· Compare The Magna Carta with Solon’s code.
Опрос по лексике урока. (Unit 4 Just English).
Работа над лексикой урока (Unit 4 Just English). . Task 2
Задание: что представляют собой демократическая/ республиканская/ федеральная/ парламентская формы правления.
Работа над артиклями и предлогами.
Cложноподчиненные предложения с союзами if, when.
Задания для самостоятельной работы студентов:
1. Выучить лексический и грамматический материал, представленный на занятии.
2. Выполнить грамматические упражнения письменно.
Форма контроля:
· Фронтальный и индивидуальный опрос
· Оценка навыков монологической и диалогической речи в ходе дискуссии по теме
14. Когда мы покупаем билет на поезд, любой юрист может сказать нам, что он представляет собой договор с правовыми обязательствами, но для большинства из нас это просто билет, который дает нам право сесть в поезд.
When we buy a train ticket, a lawyer may tell us it represents a contract with legal obligations, but to most of us it is just a ticket that gets us on the train.
15. Если наш сосед громко включает музыку по ночам, мы, наверное, попытаемся решить этот вопрос с ним, а не с помощью полиции, юристов и судов.
If our neighbour plays loud music late at night, we will probably try to discuss the matter with him rather than consulting the police, lawyers or courts.
16. Только когда мы пострадали в аварии на железной дороге или когда сосед отказывается вести себя разумно, мы начинаем задумываться о правовой стороне нашей повседневной жизни.
Only when we are injured in a train accident or when a neighbour refuses to behave reasonably, we start thinking about the legal implications of our everyday activities.
17. И все же некоторые сделки в современном обществе настолько сложны, что мало кто из нас рискнет совершить их, не обратившись за советом к юристу.
Even so, some transactions in modern society are so complex that few of us would risk making them without first seeking legal advice.
27
18. Мы пользуемся им [советом юриста], когда покупаем или продаем дом, открываем дело или решаем, кому оставить нашу собственность в случае нашей смерти.
We use it when we buy or sell a house, set up a business, or decide whom to give our property to when we die.
19. В целом кажется, что люди во всем мире постепенно привыкают использовать правовые средства для регулирования отношений друг с другом.
On the whole, it seems that people all over the world are becoming more and more accustomed to using legal means to regulate their relations with each other.
20. Поскольку страны сотрудничают все больше и больше, и увеличивается количество глобальных проблем, которые они должны решать совместно, существуют попытки сделать правовые нормы международными, чтобы одни и те же правовые принципы можно было бы применять ко всем странам и людям.
As countries cooperate more and more and have an increasing number of common global problems to solve, there are at tempts to internationalize legal standards, so that the same legal principles could be applied to all countries and people.
21. Когда право помогает людям достичь справедливых соглашений, его считают хорошей вещью.
When law helps people to reach just agreements, it is regarded as a good thing.
22. Однако когда оно требует временны`х и денежных затрат и показывает неспособность людей общаться неофициально,право кажется злом, но необходимым злом, о котором каждый человек должен иметь элементарное представление.
However, when it involves time and money and shows people’s inability to cooperate informally, law seems to be an evil — but a necessary one that everyone should have a basic knowledge of.
28
B. Tell the text using the following outline.
1. Law. Reasons for having it.
2. Two motives for making and enforcing laws. Public law and private law.
3. Law in the life of ordinary people.
4. Reasons for seeking legal advice.
5. Need for making legal standards international.
V. Active Vocabulary
1.
agreement
to reach just agreements соглашение достигать справедливых соглашений
2.
to apply [əˈplaɪ] the same
legal [ˈli:ɡəl] principles to
smth
применять одинаковые правовые принципы к чему-л.
3.
attempt [əˈtempt]
попытка
4.
to become accustomed
[əˈkʌstəmd]
to doing smth
привыкнуть делать что-л.
5.
behaviour [bɪˈheɪvjə]
to behave reasonably поведение вести себя
6.
body of rules
свод правил, совокупность норм
7.
business
to set up a business предприятие организовать / основать предприятие
8.
citizen
гражданин
9.
to consult [kənˈsʌlt] smth /
smb
обращаться за помощью куда-л. / к кому-л.
10. contract
договор
11. to cooperate [kəuˈɔpəreɪt]
to cooperate informally сотрудничать сотрудничать на неформальном уровне
12. court [kɔ:t]
суд
13. to discuss a matter with smb обсудить вопрос с кем-л.
29
14. dispute [dɪsˈpju:t]
to settle disputes informal ways of settling disputes спор урегулировать споры неформальные способы урегулирования споров
15. government [ˈɡʌvnmənt]
to govern [ˈɡʌvn]
государство, государственная власть управлять
16. justice [ˈdʒʌstɪs]
implementation of justice just (syn. fair)
правосудие, справедливость отправление правосудия справедливый
17. law [ˈlɔ:]
public law civil law to make / produce a law to enforce laws against smb право, закон публичное право частное право создать, издать закон применять законы к кому-л.
18. lawyer [ˈlɔ:jə]
юрист
19. legal [ˈli:ɡəl]
legal obligations legal means legal implications legal standards legal principles юридический, правовой правовые обязательства правовые средства правовые последствия правовые нормы правовые принципы
20. to regulate relations with
smb
регулировать отношения с кем-л.
21. satisfactory [ˌsætɪsˈfæktərɪ]
удовлетворительный
22. to seek (sought) legal
advice
обращаться за помощью к юристу
23. society [səˈsaɪətɪ]
modern society общество современное общество
24. to solve global problems
решать глобальные проблемы
25. transaction [trænˈzækʃən]
complex transaction to make a transaction сделка сложная сделка совершить сделку
31
B.
Закон — это свод правил, который регулирует поведение членов общества. Основная цель закона — установить общественный порядок. В большинстве стран законы создаются парламентом. Новые законы появляются постоянно, т.к. наша жизнь быстро меняется. Однако трудно создать законы, которые удовлетворяли бы всех.
VI. Key Terms
1.
Citizen [ˈsɪtɪzn]
is someone who lives in a particular town or state
2.
Court [kɔ:t]
is a place where a trial is held
3.
Law [lɔ:]
is a body of rules supported by the power of government
4.
Lawyer [ˈlɔ:jə]
is someone whose job is to advise people about laws
5.
Property [ˈprɔpətɪ] is things that people own
VII. Additional Materials
Exercise 1. Read, translate and discuss the text.
The question “What is law?” has troubled people for many years. A whole field of study known as jurisprudence (the study of law and legal philosophy) is devoted to answering this question. Many definitions of law exist. For our purposes, however, law can be defined as the rules and regulations made and enforced by the government that regulate the conduct of people within a society.
As a child, you learned about rules first at home and later at school. At home, your parents made and enforced rules concerning issues like chores and bedtimes. Rules made and enforced by the government are called laws. The government makes laws that affect almost every aspect of daily life.
32
One thing is certain: every society that has ever existed has recognized the need for laws. These laws may have been unwritten, but even pre-industrial societies had rules to regulate people’s conduct. Native American societies, for example, were go verned by unwritten laws. When Europeans first arrived on the
North American continent, each of the native American nations
(or tribes, as they are commonly called today) maintained order through a system of unwritten rules. Because many non-native
American government officials and others did not see or understand these traditional mechanisms, many non-native American held the erroneous view that the societies were lawless. Today, some native American groups are still governed, at least in part, by traditional unwritten law.
Without laws, there would be confusion and disorder. This does not mean that all laws are fair or even good, but imagine how people might take advantage of one another without a set of rules.
Exercise 2. Discuss the following statements.
1. Laws haven’t changed since primeval times.
2. However hard people try, laws are always insufficient.
3. Laws are not for ordinary people, they are for lawyers.
4. All laws a situational. They suit only a particular place at a particular time.
5. There is some eternal law. It is good for all times and places.
Use the collocations: In my opinion
From my point of view
I think /consider / believe
On the one hand… on the other hand
On the contrary
Exercise 3. Write an essay on the statement: “People can’t
live without rules and laws”. Use the outline
and information below.
1. People use laws and rules everywhere (at home, at work, in sport, etc.). There would be a chaos and confusion without laws (when to come to work; on which side of the road to drive; etc).
2. Laws give us rights (to own our property; to safety on the roads; to get paid for our work, etc.).
3. Laws impose duties on us (to let others own and enjoy their property; to drive within a speed limit, etc.). When we obey laws, we automatically protect the rights of the people about us.
4. Conclusion. Laws and rules are to improve our lives and protect us from harm.
34
Unit 2
LAW SYSTEMS
I. Lead-in
The legal system of each country is shaped by its unique history. However, the legal systems of the world today are generally based on one of two basic systems: civil law and common law or combinations of these. Some countries make use of religious texts which act rather like Constitution.
1. What is a legal system?
2. Can judges make law?
3. What is meant by separation of powers?
4. What legal system is used in your country?
5. What countries use religious law?
II. Reading
A) Pronounce the following words correctly.
Commonwealth [ˈkɔmənwelθ]
specific
[spɪˈsɪfɪk]
ruling
[ˈru:lɪŋ]
beneficiary
[ˌbenɪˈfɪʃərɪ]
to apply
[əˈplaɪ]
to prevail
[prɪˈveɪl]
essential
[ɪˈsenʃəl]
satisfactory
[ˌsætɪsˈfæktərɪ]
previous
[ˈpri:vjəs]
monetary
[ˈmʌnɪtərɪ]
existing
[ɪɡˈzɪstɪŋ]
to unify
[ˈju nɪfaɪ]
equitable
[ˈekwɪtəbl]
legislator
[ˈledʒɪsleɪtə]
flexibility
[ˌfleksɪˈbɪlɪtɪ]
legislative
[ˈledʒɪslətɪv]
to recognize
[ˈrekəɡnaɪz]
legislature
[ˈledʒɪsleɪtʃə]
century
[ˈsentʃurɪ]
influence
[ˈɪnfluəns]
35
emperor
[ˈempərə]
to appear
[əˈpɪə]
to exaggerate
[ɪɡˈzædʒəreɪt]
judiciary
[dʒu:ˈdɪʃɪərɪ]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1.
system of law / legal
system
система права
2.
to develop
to develop differently
развиваться развиваться по-разному
3.
Common law / Case law общее право / прецедентное право
4.
Civil law / Roman law /
Continental law
римское право / континентальное право
5.
to adopt a law
принимать закон
6.
Commonwealth
countries
страны Содружества
7.
former socialist
countries
бывшие социалистические государства
(2)
8.
to develop gradually
развиваться постепенно
9.
throughout the history
на всем протяжении истории
10. to be based on smth
основыватьcя на чем-л.
11. custom
обычай
12. court ruling
решение суда
13. precedent
doctrine of precedent
прецедент доктрина прецедента
14. statute
статут; закон, выраженный в законодательном акте парламента; норма
15. concept
понятие
16. to make a decision on
a case
выносить / принимать решение по делу
17. higher court
суд вышестоящей инстанции
18. lower court
суд нижестоящей инстанции
36
19. essential elements
основные элементы / составляющие
20. thus
так, таким образом
21. judge
судья
22. to apply smth to smth
to apply existing
precedents to new cases
применять что-л. к чему-л.
применять существующие прецеденты к новым делам
23. previous
previous recorded case
предыдущий предыдущее дело, зафиксированное в Сборнике судебных решений
(3)
24. to modify a law
вносить поправки в закон, изменять закон
25. to clarify a law
разъяснять смысл закона
26. to exist
existing
существовать существующий
27. to interpret a statute /
a law
interpretation
толковать статут / закон толкование
28. therefore
по этой причине, вследствие этого, поэтому
29. to follow a precedent
следовать прецеденту
(4)
30. principle of equity
принцип справедливости
31. to be satisfied with smth
ant.
to be dissatisfied
with smth
быть удовлетворенным чем-л.
быть неудовлетворенным чем-л.
32. (in)flexibility
(не)гибкость
33. to recognise the rights
признавать права
34. to enforce rights
осуществлять права
35. equitable / just
справедливый
36. to force smb to do smth
заставить кого-л. сделать что-л.
37
37. to carry out a contract
выполнять контракт / договор
38. specific performance
реальное исполнение, исполнение в натуре
39. beneficiary of a trust
бенефициарий доверительной собственности
(5)
40. court of common law
суд общего права
41. court of equity
суд справедливости
42. to exist alongside
сосуществовать
43. equitable ruling
on a case
решение суда справедливости по делу
44. to prevail
преобладать, превалировать
45. to start an action
in court
начать дело в суде
46. satisfactory solution
удовлетворяющее решение
47. damages (monetary
compensation)
to seek (sought)
damages
возмещение убытков добиваться, требовать возмещения убытков
48. to unify smth
объединять что-л.
(6)
49. сodified law system
кодифицированная правовая система
50. to result from smth
следовать, происходить в результате
51. code
to produce a set of codes
закон, законодательный акт, кодекс создать свод законов
52. to govern every legal
aspect of life
управлять всеми правовыми вопросами жизни общества
53. legislator / lawmaker
законодатель
54. to originate in the state
исходить от государства
55. to separate smth
отделить что-л. (от чего-л.)
38
56. legislature
законодательная власть
57. judiciary
судебная власть
58. to influence smth
влиять на что-л.
59. under the direction
of smb
под руководством кого-л.
60. emperor
император
61. to pass a law
принимать закон
62. legislative body
законодательный орган
(7)
63. to exaggerate smth
преувеличивать что-л.
64. сlear distinction
четкое различие, разделение
65. to weaken
ослабевать
C) Text
LAW SYSTEMS
(1)Every country has its own system of law as each country has developed differently. However, there are two main traditions of law in the world — English Common law, or Case law, and Civil law, or Roman law,or Continental law.
English Common law is adopted by many Commonwealth
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Ну.. .что-то типа того. .
Law? And that what so general in the law? What sense is in him and what is he expressed? If in earnest to be thoughtful above, laws began to appear exactly in time, when a human realized, what is fear! All, what people could not understand or explain – frightened them. For the reason they are need ssmthing or someone who was strong and would say them all about these undertook things, haw and why they are here. So people called them Gods!! God became similar the first law for a man, by a law line of which they can not crosr in spite of everything. Certainly there was some religious norms and generally accepted rules whom appeared. Laws not nearly changed since that to our days. Yes, they became more wider and expressed a large responsibility, but sense remained former. Every country – has this own laws, however said there are not in one of them, that you can put someone to death, snaffle -in other wards – to do everything, you want!!Certainly laws are legal acts which have a large responsibility on the shoulders of everybody. That sense which was carried by the laws of primeval times saved the laws of our time. it’s like as it was before on each the gods accompanied motion of human, just like laws are accompanied people nowadays. They are expressed in every people act, in every motion and even with a look haw exactly we can see this world!